Applied Business Research and Ethics Moral Decisions

Questions: 1.Given that no single ethical theory is perfect; discuss how ethical theories can assist a person to make an ethical decision? Construct an argument for or against deontological (non-consequential) theories as the preferred option to use for ethical decision making and explain the key differences between this perspective as opposed to a consequential one.2. It is argued that utilitarianism is useful for in an organisational context because it gives us an objective perspective that is not clouded by self-interest. It also encourages the decision maker to consider all whom his or her decisions may effect. Opposing arguments suggest that as we often do not know with certainty what the future consequences of our actions will be, the value of adopting utilitarianism as an effective tool for ethical decision-making can be questioned. Construct an argument defending which of these perspectives do you agree with and why or why not?3. In contrast to question 2 above, some theorists argue tha t deontological theories (non-consequential theories) should be the preferred option for ethical decision making in organisations as opposed to utilitarianism. Construct an argument supporting the use of deontological theories as the most preferred option for organisation ethical decision-making using appropriate theory and your personal experiences to provide evidence of your position.4. There are different schools of thought about whether a corporation can be a moral agent. Further the argument is that if a non-human entity (a corporation) can enjoy certain rights then it naturally flows that it also should have certain responsibilities thus taking the view that rights and responsibilities go hand in hand. Discuss the main arguments for and against these two views and take and defend a position on which you think has the strongest case.5. The complexity of todays economy and the dependence of consumers on business increase businesss responsibility for product safety. Some consumer protection advocates argue that more regulation and legislation is needed in regard to product safety. Discuss whether you agree or disagree (using an ethical perspective) and in your answer consider the implications and likely consequences of increased regulation versus the alternative of industry self-regulation.6. Do you think that consumers are adequately equipped to conduct sufficient research in order to make informed choices about the products that they buy and that are offered for sale? Are there particular groups in society for whom this option is not viable (for example those without internet access, with poor language skills and those with disabilities)? If this is the case what are the social and ethical obligations for companies in relation to this issue? What do you suggest be done and why?7. Evaluate the following statement:When people place personal information on a public domain (such as Facebook), they consent implicitly to anybody viewing that information. If tha t information is subsequently used in a manner that harms them, they only have themselves to blame. Employers have a right to make value judgements about their employees based upon what they post on their social media pages. Such information gives the employer an indication of whether that person is reliable, a hard worker and so on.Do you agree with this statement? Is it morally acceptable to monitor prospective or current employees off the job behaviour using their social networking sites? Justify your answer using ethical theory.8. Since consumer demand drives the production and sale of goods and services, the production of which can have a detrimental impact on the environment, do they then have a concomitant social obligation in terms of environmental responsibility? Explain your view and defend with appropriate ethical theory.9. Is a company morally obliged to follow the safety guidelines of its home country (where the company is based) when the standards in the host country ( where the company operates) are lower? What is the difference between moral obligation and law? In your view which should take precedence and defend your position with relevant ethical and CSR theory? How do your thoughts align with your views about CSR?10. In the workplace employees have rights and responsibilities. One such right is the right for free speech. Construct an argument either for or against free speech in the workplace. Issues to consider in your argument should include (but not be limited to) the right to voice an opinion without fear of retribution and whether speech incites violence or hatred toward others should be allowed. Use ethical theory to justify your position.11. outline the steps that a research should undertake to ensure that their study is ethical and discuss the essential ethical components that any researcher would have to consider. In your answer use examples to illustrate your position. Answers: Introduction Ethical theories guide people in making moral decisions. Even though there is no particular ethical theory that can be perfect, the theories put together provided us with useful principles to make rationale decision. According to Millss utilitarian theory, the principle of the greatest happiness has shaped how we make decision (Summerell, Salleh and Leslie 2003). For example, by positing that actions are rights as they tend to promote happiness and wrong as they advocate for the reverse, we get a base through which we start considering the impacts of our decisions. For example, take a case of using ethical theories to eliminate famine, various ethical scholars have argued differently to showcase how we can make decisions. 1. The central principle that ONeill homes lies on the duties of justice that has to be accomplished since if they are never achieved people are used as mere means. Thus, ONeills argument shows that Kantian moral theory primarily asserts that people must never do injustice (Misselbrook 2013). Onora holds that we must always be dutiful as a matter of justice in famine-stricken conditions or like United States with respect to Senegal. Onora holds that we must never deceive or take advantage. Also, Onora points out that with respect to Kantian duties of beneficence as she advocates assisting to promote others ends to be independent (Shaw and Barry 2015). Thus, time is never a factor according to Kantian approach to famine. Thus Onora explicates the difference between her advocated Kantian famine solutions as well the benchmark against utilitarian approach. Thus Onora argument for the Kantian approach to famine is informed by the fact that Kantian never believed that individuals who have done something unintentionally wrong would be unjust or bad. Thus, she argues that people actions should have good will and good intentions and thus fully reflected via peoples actions. On the other hand, Peter Singer disagrees fully (Shaw and Barry 2015). Peter embraces a firm utilitarian solution. He thus instigates by accepting that suffering and death from famine is bad. Thus, he plugs in the utilitarian element of the argument. Subsequently, Peter argues for greater good. Thus, he argues that if it is ones capacity to prevent something bad from happening while in the process not a sacrifice of comparable moral good, then we are bound to execute it. Unlike the Kantian approach, Peter never exempts some actions by virtue of space-time excuses (Shaw and Barry 2015). Thus, Peter perceives people as equal and hence bound to help regardless of the location of famine. Thus Peter argues that, without sacrificing something of equal moral good we are bound to help avert famine. Peter says that a toddler drowning must be helped out of the paddle by the any agent. Thus, according to Singer, there is never a difference with the problem of famine. Both ONeill and Peter are in agreement that people dying and hurting from famine is bad whereas duties of beneficence are good. However, the difference rest in the assigned duties. ONeill believe that it is all right as longs as the intentions are good and people do not commit injustices by being just. On the other hand, Peter believes that by ignoring a responsibility to help others an individual engage in grave injustice (Shaw and Barry 2015). Arthur points out that people should only help with no cost attached themselves alongside the absence of a substantial decline in such peoples happiness. Therefore, the situation is so nuanced than Peter Singer would have imagined. The conclusion of the author also points towards a donation to charitable too help those in needs. However, an individual is entitled to his happin ess by using their money earned without wrongly judging people on how they spent money. Deontology is a word derived from the Greek language, on meaning duty and logos for science. First examined by a philosopher, Immanuel Kant in the 18th century, he argued that nothing is good with no qualification to expect for a good will. Consequently, deontological ethics is an ethical theory that embeds emphasis on the relationship between the line of duty and morality of human actions (Hanekamp 2007). Conversely, the theory considers an action morally good because of its characteristics and not as a result of the end product. It also points out the significance of actions that are morally obligatory even at the expense of their consequences regarding human welfare (Shaw and Barry 2015). A common descriptive expression used in referring to the ethical theory include, Duty for dutys sake. In the same perspective, a deontological theory has been regarded formalistic due to the nature of its central principle which is embedded on the conformity of an action to some rule of law. Deontological theory acknowledges that some actions are wrong and right based on the sorts of things they are, and hence individuals have an obligation or duty to act accordingly, irrespective of the good or bad consequences which may result or generated. For example we can use deontological theory to answer the ethical question, Should we penalize a soldier for disobeying an unjust or illegal order given by one's superiors? In this case, I support the soldiers who reject the unjust or illegal orders issued by their superiors regardless of the consequences they will generate since they are in line with the deontological ethical theory which clearly appreciates that some actions are wrong or right because of the sorts of things they and, therefore, these soldiers have a duty to act accordingly by rejecting the illegal or unjust orders regardless of the good or bad consequences that may be generated (Shaw and Barry 2015). In my view, therefore, we should never penalize a soldier for di sobeying an illegal order issued by ones superiors. However to argue against the theory, Deontological ethics embeds emphasis on absolute rules. Consequently, the rules tend to be rigid hence in one way or another complicating ways of dealing with cases. Most of the people also find the moral theory challenging since it focusses on the reduction in the overall happiness of the world. Utilitarianism, conversely, is embedded in the idea that actions are good because it benefits the greater number of members in society rather than a single individual (Shaw and Barry 2015). The consequences hence are what give ethical value to any action. The theory is a counter argument for the deontological theory, and it was pioneered by John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. However, critics such as Karl Max place more emphasis on the consequences. 2. To explain this, I will give a case where the owner (Potters) of the organization is in a dilemma to appoint his son (Henry) as the CEO who is not auguring well with other workers including myself whom he mistreated before but I haven not told his father and hence putting the entire firm at risk of losing employees or resistance or low production. According to utilitarian ethical theory, the main principle is that of Greatest Happiness which suggest that actions are rights as they tend to promote happiness and wrongs as they do the reverse. This theory is, therefore, relevant in helping Potters get out of this dilemma by choosing that action which will promote happiness or social (organization) good and not individual. On the other hand, the deontological theory is also relevant in this theory since it holds that people need to act accordingly or morally regardless of the consequences of the actions (Shaw and Barry 2015). This means that an action will be right so long as an indiv idual acts morally irrespective of the consequences. Accordingly, the deontological theory will help Jill make a decision without fearing what Potters will do to her so longs as she makes or acts accordingly. Therefore, from reading the scenario, it is apparent that the decision taken by Potters to elevate Henry to the CEOs position will not be good for the business and hence, I should apply the deontological theory to dispense this issue by telling Potter about the negativities of Henry. 3. Deontological ethical theory principle features apply to the question Should we penalize a soldier for disobeying an unjust or illegal order given by one's superiors? in some ways. It is clear that the soldiers face hostile conditions and need to be penalized since according to this theory, the consequences of an action does matter so long as one act accordingly. By refusing illegal or unjust orders they are subjected to, soldiers advance the practice of this theory in reality since they will act morality by ignoring the unjust orders regardless of the consequences (Shaw and Barry 2015). The specific conclusion identified from the application of the reasoning characteristic of this kind of approach is that those in the leadership position should adhere to the law and stop giving illegal orders to their subjects. 4. A corporation can be a moral agent by laying down the moral policies to be adhered to in all practices. Since a corporation can enjoy some rights, it flows naturally that it can have particular responsibilities. Therefore, the view that rights and responsibilities go in handy is rational. Where a corporation has a right to produce goods and services, it is natural that it has the responsibilities to produce quality goods and services for which it was registered. Undertaking immoral or unethical practices to achieve its rights of production is against its purpose at registration and hence we cannot separate right from responsibility. We need to first have the right before having the responsibility and hence having a right without responsibility is null and void. 5. I disagree with the advocate of increased regulation and legislation to guard safety of then consumers but rather support the increased ethical practices or moral obligations. Having laws and regulation will not solve the issue since a company can act legally but immorally and hence still safety will not be guaranteed. The implications and likely consequences of increased regulation against the alternative of industry self-regulation will be detrimental. Firms will only adhere to the regulations and laws but undertake unethical practices in turn to compensate for any losses they may accrue as a result of increased regulation. 6. I do not think that consumers are sufficiently armed to undertake satisfactory exploration to make informed choices regarding the commodities that they purchase and that companies offer for sale. Various groups in society including those without internet access, with poor language skills and those with disabilities do not see the viability of this option. Accordingly, companies are socially and ethically obligated to ensure perfect information about the products offered, prices, side effects and so on exist for all the categories of consumer (Marques 2015). The companys marketing department or sales promotion must take it upon themselves to use every means possible to ensure that the information is accessible by all consumers. 7. The information post by both prospective and current employees of given company will directly affect the firm and hence the need for employers to monitor these people off job behavior on social networks. This helps the employers to make value judgements concerning their workers upon their social media pages posts. Through such monitoring employers get to know whether that individual personality of the worker. I support this argument fully since the reputation of the company is on the hands of the employees and any derogatory post will bring the company to its knees. Firms should, therefore, monitor what is post so as not to fall prey of their competitors in cases when the employees post their weakness and opportunities and even strengths. 8. It is true that consumer demand is a key driver to the production and sale of goods and services as well as the production which in turn have a detrimental impact on the environment, however, they do not have concomitant social obligation in terms of environmental responsibility in my view. This is because, the producers and sellers of these goods and services are the ones that are socially obligated in terms of environmental responsibility (Rachels and Rachels 2003). Consumers will always demand what they require and at the same time expect the producers sellers to adhere to the CRS. Therefore, it would not be possible again that consumers need to act in any way that then compel the sellers and producers to act morally. 9. In my view, a company is morally obliged to follow the safety guidelines of its home country in case the host countrys standards are lower. Ethical practice should never be confined to legal requirement but need go beyond mere legal consideration. A company can be legal but not ethical and hence will still cause externalities to other people. Moral obligation requires a company to always act morally even if the laws are weak to compel them to act so while law only outlines what the company is required to do which to some companies may not necessarily be moral. In my view, the moral obligation needs to take precedence and have the company be morally obliged to follow the safety guideline of the home country when those of those host country work but the company should meet the local laws. Ethical and CSR theories utilitarianism will dictate the firm to act morally since it will create competitive advantage over others and hence make profits. My thoughts align my views about CSR posi tively since Corporate Social Responsibility may not fully be achieved by abiding to the laws but remaining morally obliged. 10. Free speech should be allowed but restricted to the organization policies to which an employee had appended his signature to uphold. Based on the utilitarianism theory, the employees must utter words which promote the general happiness or social good and not self-interest. The right to voice an opinion without fear of retribution should be allowed by organization rules, regulation and policies clearly outlining how such opinion should be aired. The speech which incites violence or hatred toward others should not be allowed since this will go against the principle of the Greatest Happiness or social benefits. 11. For studies involving human subjects, a researcher must start by getting the permission from the authorities. For example, where the study is to be conducted in a given school, the principle must be ask for permission. Then the researcher must obtain consent from the participants and ensure that the consent form is signed. The researcher should then explain to the participants that they are free to pull out of the study at wish at any time (Windsor 2006). Then he must as well as explain what the outcomes or the data collected from them will be used for and how it will be stored. Once the data has been collected, the researcher should take it back to the participants to verify that indeed those were the real information they gave. He must also explain that in case there is a change of the purpose of data, he would go back and seek consent from the participants. He must as well assure the subjects of their privacy and confidentiality. 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